What are the advantages and disadvantages of biotechnology

Biotechnology involves genetic engineering, which in nothing but transferring gene from one and inserting them into another species. Biotechnology has seemed to have improved the conditions of living, yet with all its promises it has its wide disadvantages too.

Advantages:

• Higher crop yields.
• Higher resistance to diseases.
• Less pesticide is needed to be used due to insect pest resistant plants.
• GMO crops last longer. This decreases the amount of wasted crops and foods.
• Reduced energy needs to produce GMO crops.
• Decrease in costs of growing and farming, due to the reduced use of pesticides. Farmers have more income, which they could spend on such things as, for example, the education of their children.
• More economically friendly as pesticides do not go into the air, soil, and water (especially freshwater supplies). Their production hazards to the environment also decreases.
• In the corn market, Monsanto’s triple-stack corn which combines Roundup Ready 2 weed control technology with YieldGard Corn Borer and YieldGard Rootworm insect control.
• Less starvation in the world due to decreased food prices.
• More nutritious. This has been proven and tested many times.
• Creation of “super foods” due to better knowledge. Super foods are types of food that are cheap to produce, grow fast in large quantities, highly nutritious.
• New products. For examples, scientist identified the gene responsible for caffeine in coffee beans; by excluding this gene, decaffeinated coffee beans can be grown naturally.
• Reduction of sicknesses and illnesses, as GMO crops are more nutritious. Vitamins and minerals can be provided to children and to people, where they were inaccessible before (i.e.: the world’s poorest and/or most secluded areas).
• Developments of new kinds of crops that can be grown at extreme climates, for example, dry or freezing environments (like deserts). For example, scientist developed a type of tomato that grows in salty soil.

Disadvantages:

Ramification to human health

Human Breast Cancer: GMOs in our food allows for greater herbicide and pesticide used over time many of which are known endocrine disruptors. The Breast Cancer Fund has released a publication, “State of the Evidence” that connects environmental toxins to breast cancer. Some of the pesticides that they identified as causing mammary glands include propazine, cyanazine, chlordane, methhyl bromide, malathion, and 2,4-D.

Lung cancer: From the chemical-lined bag to the actual contents, microwave popcorn is at the center of lung cancer debates around the world. Not only are the kernels and oil likely GMO (which the manufacturer does not have to disclose), but the fumes released contain diacetyl, which is toxic to humans.

• Spread of new, more resistant "super weeds”. Spread of new, more resistant "super pests". Major trading countries that obtain most of the benefit from the production and trade of genetically modified crops. This might cause more geopolitical conflicts.
• Possible damages to the environment.
• Additional costs of labeling whether products are GMOs or not. This might increase costs of foods.
• Widening corporate size gaps between food producing giants and smaller ones. This might cause a consolidation in the market: fewer competitors increase the risk of oligopolies, which might increase food prices.
• Larger companies might have more political power. They might be able to influence safety and health standards (example: less stringent regulations, standards and requirements).
• Harm to other organisms. For example, genes and their effect included in a crop may turn out to be poisonous to insects (monarch butterfly poisoned by GMO corns).
• Cross-pollination with traditional, organic plants. Cross pollination can occur at quite large distances. New genes may also be included in the offspring of the traditional, organic crops miles away. This makes it difficult to distinguish which crop field is organic, and which is not, posing a problem to the proper labeling of non-GMO food products.
• Allergies may become more intense, and also, new allergy types may develop.

Importance of plasmid in Biotechnology

Plasmid is a small circle DNA,typically found in bacteria,that is separate from the majority of bacterial DNA located in the nucleoid. Specifically,plasmids are nonessential extra chromosomal pieces of DNA which usually contains between 5 and 100 genes that are not required for the survival of the bacteria.

Plasmid is actually a vehicle for storing and studying genes.Scientists use it in laboratory experiments as a vector for DNA of interest,typically a gene, they are usually represented by a simple circle inside a cell.

To be an effective tool for scientists, a plasmid typically possesses three basics feature or importance:

• A multiple cloning site.
• An origin of replication,and
• A selectable marker.

Now let’s see how these plasmid features plays a key role in genetically engineering bacteria to produce human insulin. If the main purpose of a plasmid is to serve as a vehicle for genes of interest,we need to be able to insert the human insulin gene into the plasmid. This is the purpose of Multiple Cloning Site.A Multiple Cloning Site is the location in a plasmid where a sequence of DNA,typically a gene, can be inserted. Once a gene is inserted into a plasmid, you obviously don’t want to lose it. Wouldn't it be great if the bacteria did all the work maintaining the plasmid for us ? Actually,that’s one main reasons scientists put a gene into a bacterial plasmid. The origin of replication is the place where the process of DNA replication begins. Therefore, if our plasmid possesses an origin of replication (ori.) the bacteria will automatically make a new copy of the plasmid during the replication process (DNA replication creates an exact copy of DNA in the cell). This means that the two daughter cells both receive a copy of the DNA found in the mother cell when the mother cell divides. If our genetically engineered plasmid has an origin of replication, it is also replicated creating a two daughter cells both containing the gene of interest (GOI). A plasmid also possess a selectable marker, selectable marker is an element that is required for the maintenance of the plasmid in the cell. Due to the presence of the selective marker, the plasmid becomes useful for the cell. Under the selective conditions, only cells that contain plasmids with the appropriate selectable marker can survive. Commonly, genes that confer resistance to various antibiotics are used as selective markers in cloning vectors.

What is the difference between pour plate method and spread plate method in isolation of bacterial colonies

Pour-plate method and Spread-plate method are used for quantification or enumeration of bacterial sample.

The difference between pour-plate method and spread-plate method are as follows:-

[A] Procedure: -

For pour plate-

• Inoculum from a sample is placed in the center of sterile Petri dish using a sterile pipette. Molten cooled agar (approx. 15mL) is then poured into the Petri dish containing the inoculum.

For spread plate-

• Inoculum from a sample is pipette out and spread evenly on sterile nutrient Agar by spreader.

[B] Amount of Inoculum:-

For pour plate-

• Inoculum is more i.e 1ml

For spread plate-

• Inoculum is less i.e. 0.1ml

[C] Growth of colonies:-

For pour plate-

• Colonies grow in and on solidified medium.

For spread plate-

• Colonies grow only on surface of medium.

[D] Mixing of inoculum and medium:-

For pour plate-

• After pouring molten agar on inoculum the plate is gently swirl.

For spread plate-

• Inoculum is spread on surface of medium (agar) by sterile glass rod spreader.

[E] Surface area covered by sample:-

In pour plate-

• More surface area is covered as the sample is spread throughout the media.

In spread plate-

• Sample is spread only to a limited area i.e. only on the surface of agar.

[F] Uses:-

For pour plate-

• It is used to determine CFU/ml or PFU/ml.

For spread plate-

• It is used to isolate specific clonal colonies.

[G] Advantage:-

Pour plate-

1. It allows the growth of microaerophiles.
2. It helps in identification of bacteria, i.e. whether the bacteria is an aerobe, anaerobe or facultative aerobe.

Spread plate-

1. Picking surface colony will not interrupt other colonies by digging out of agar.
2. Get even distribution of colonies.

[H ] Disadvantage:-

For pour plate-

1. Picking subsurface colonies can interrupt other colonies by digging out of agar.
2. Don't get even distribution of colonies.

For spread plate-

1. It doesn't allow growth of microaerophiles.
2. It doesn't allow growth of obligate anaerobes.

[I] Benefits:-

For pour plate-

• It is beneficial to isolate certain bacteria which are motile and don't grow as colony.

For spread plate-

• It is beneficial for isolation of bacteria from soil or water

Why do we use a nitrocellulose membrane in western blot

Nitrocellulose membranes are a popular matrix used in protein blotting because of

1. Their high protein-binding affinity
2. Compatibility with a variety of detection methods (chemiluminescence, chromogenic, and fluorescence), and
3. The ability to immobilize proteins, glycoproteins, or nucleic acids.

Protein immobilization is thought to occur by hydrophobic interactions, and high salt and low methanol concentrations help improve protein immobilization to the membrane during electrophoretic transfer, especially for proteins with higher molecular weights. Nitrocellulose membranes are not optimal for electrophoretic transfer of nucleic acids, as the high salt concentrations that are required for efficient binding will effectively elute some or all of the charged nucleic acid fragments.

Yes we can use different membrane instead if that make us meet the such requirements…

Can RNAi technique be used as a treatment of antibiotics resistance in Bacteria

Yes, it can be modified using this technology but we are still not sure it would be proved to be an efficient.. Bacteria often carry extrachromosomal genetic elements called plasmid which carry resistant genes…

Antibiotic resistance fall into the same manner but this resiatance is wide than our practical approach, i mean we have to discovera lot if genes and sequences which involve in this type of phenomena and according to that we should have to design various silencers to make our approach more effective which is gonna be really tough and incur a lot if research and money

How do enzymes speed up reactions ?

Enzymes are basically biocatalysts which increase the rate of reaction exponentially. For Each chemical reaction to occur , it must reach to an stage where both substrates are able to interact with eachbother so effeciently that some breaking or joining of bonds occur between them . This stage is called TRANSITION STAGE of reaction and energy at this stage is called transition state energy. In order to reach this stage , we must provide energy to substrates for their interaction .

Any reaction with less transition state energy occur easily as compare to the one with more transition state energy. Enzymes increase the rate of reaction by lowering the energy of transition state.

Production of wine from saccharomyces cerevisiae

The major wine producing countries have laws that define wine as the product of the alcoholic fermentation by S. cerevisiae of the fresh grape juices. There is, of course, one exception,—Botrytis cinera, a plant pathogen, during their fermentation first send their hyphae into the skin of the grapes causing water loss, resulting in shriveled grapes with unusually high sugar concentration.

This is next allowed to ferment by S. cerevisiae and the so—called French Pourifure noble or the German Edelfaule is formed. The differences between the wines depend on the variety of the grape, the local soil and climate, the properties of the yeasts and the details of the production method.

The fermentation is traditionally carried out in open vats but fermenters giving a greater control of conditions are now widely used, especially for white wines. The yeast primarily responsible for alcoholic fermentation is Saccharomyces cerevisiae. The sugar rich grape juice and other nutrients permit rapid yeast growth which soon results in anaerobic conditions. Ethanol is produced more and more during fermentation until alcohol concentration of 10-12% (v/v) is reached.

Depending on how much sugars remains unutilized, a sweet, medium or dry wine results. After the first phase of fermentation, wine is transferred to wooden casks for maturation and storage. Microbiological activity continues at a reduced level during maturation to form blander lactic acid for rising of pH. This reaction is very desirable where the grape juice is strongly acidic.

The production of cider from apple juices and perry from the juices of pears follow the same techniques and organism for fermentation. In some tropical countries like India, palm wines, made from the sap of a variety of palms, are of considerable nutritional and social importance. The Mexican equivalent of palm wine pulque, is also very important

Yeast in production of bread

Bread is the product of baking a mixture of flour, water, salt, yeast and other ingredients. The basic process involves mixing of ingredients until the flour is converted into a stiff paste or dough, followed by baking the dough into a loaf.

The aims of the breadmaking processes used in New Zealand (mechanical dough development, bulk fermentation and no-time doughs) are to produce dough that will rise easily and have properties required to make good bread for the consumer.

To make good bread, dough made by any process must be extensible enough for it to relax and to expand while it is rising. A good dough is extensible if it will stretch out when pulled. It also must be elastic, that is, have the strength to hold the gases produced while rising, and stable enough to hold its shape and cell structure.

Two proteins present in flour (gliadin and glutenin) form gluten when mixed with water. It is gluten that gives dough these special properties. Gluten is essential for bread making and influences the mixing, kneading and baking properties of dough. When you first start to bake bread, learning to mix the ingredients is very important